## The Economic and Political Transformation of the South After the Civil War The end of the Civil War brought not only political turmoil but also a devastating economic catastrophe to the South. The abolition of slavery, enshrined in the 13th Amendment, resulted in the loss of approximately $3 billion in slave property (in 1860 dollars), coupled with an additional $1.5 billion in lost or destroyed non-slave property. ### The Crumbling Southern Economy The South's economic woes extended far beyond the loss of slave property. * **War Industries' Collapse:** Industries that thrived during the war became obsolete. * **Currency and Credit Crisis:** Confederate currency and bonds became worthless, leaving the South without cash or credit. * **Agricultural Devastation:** Agricultural production plummeted, particularly in key regions like Texas and the Mississippi Delta. By 1880, production was still 33% below 1860 levels. Large tracts of land lay abandoned, and the freedmen, the only available labor force, were not compelled to work as intensely as slaves. These factors led to two major shifts in Southern agriculture: 1. **Cash Crop Concentration:** Farming shifted towards single cash crops, primarily cotton and tobacco, even in areas previously focused on food production. While slave labor produced 90% of Southern cotton in 1860, by 1890, white yeoman farmers produced 40%. 2. **Plummeting Crop Prices:** Post-war demand decreased, and foreign competition (Indian and Egyptian cotton) further depressed prices. Cotton prices fell from 43 cents/pound in 1865 to 30 cents/pound in 1866, and by 1877, the price was only 15 cents/pound, requiring three times the production to match 1865 earnings. The inherent challenges of cotton farming—soil depletion, weather, disease, and strenuous manual labor—exacerbated the situation. By 1880, one-third of white Southern farmers had lost their land due to crop liens or foreclosures. Understanding the interplay between crop prices, soil depletion, and labor availability is crucial to grasping the South's post-war economic struggles. ### The Shift in Agricultural Labor The economic crisis spurred a shift away from contract labor, due to cash shortages and freedmen's resistance to working under their former owners. This transition occurred in two stages: 1. **Squad Farming:** Kinship groups (7-12 family members) contracted for specific tasks (plowing, planting, harvesting), receiving payment upon completion. 2. **Sharecropping:** Families farmed small plots, paying rent at the end of the harvest. While theoretically offering more economic power due to the ability to change landowners, sharecropping often trapped families in cycles of debt. Large landowners increasingly favored tenant farming, where tenants paid rent as a portion of the crop or profit. Tenant farmers typically provided their own equipment and seed, theoretically giving them more economic opportunity than sharecroppers. However, the power dynamic often shifted towards landowners, who could leverage tenants' need for cheap rent. This led to three distinct agricultural production systems: 1. **Business Plantations:** Centrally managed plantations in areas like the Mississippi Delta, where managers controlled production and sharecroppers were paid after crop sales. 2. **Tenant Plantations:** Less organized than business plantations, with absentee landlords receiving rent from tenants (black or white, depending on the region). The pervasive **crop lien** system, where landowners or storekeepers claimed a portion of the crop to cover debts, often trapped tenants in cycles of debt. 3. **Small Landowners (Yeoman Farmers):** Mostly white, but including some freedmen, who owned and farmed their own land but still faced the burden of crop liens. Confusing sharecropping and tenant farming. While both involved renting land, tenant farmers generally had more control over their operations and resources. The crop lien system frequently led to **debt peonage**, binding tenant families to the land due to insurmountable debts. ### The Political Landscape: Union Leagues and Reconstruction The agricultural changes significantly impacted the political development of the New South, particularly through the rise of **Union Leagues**. These grassroots Republican organizations, sometimes biracial, played a crucial role in Reconstruction. The Union Leagues comprised three main constituencies: 1. **Southern Blacks:** Numerically dominant in many states, but often lacking leadership positions. 2. **Carpetbaggers:** Northern migrants who sought opportunities in the South, comprising 2% of the membership and 1/6 of leadership positions. 3. **Scalawags:** Southern white Republicans, including former Whigs, modernizers, and Union sympathizers. They dominated numerically in areas with fewer black members and held most leadership positions. Consider the historical context and power dynamics to understand the disproportionate representation of black members versus leadership positions within the Union Leagues. The Union Leagues were instrumental in establishing post-war state governments. New state constitutions, while progressive for their time, often maintained a distinction between political and social equality. They included reforms like improved judicial systems, fairer legislative apportionment, establishment of public education (land-grant colleges), and recognition of women's property rights. However, internal conflicts arose within the Leagues regarding issues like disenfranchisement of ex-Confederates and land redistribution. The election of black representatives to Congress and state legislatures, such as Hiram Revels, Joseph Rainey, Jefferson Long, and Francis Cardozo, demonstrated the political progress made during Reconstruction. Despite achievements like repealing Black Codes and improving tenancy laws, political corruption and increased taxation strained the impoverished population. Southern white resistance, fueled by the corrupt practices of some carpetbaggers and scalawags, ultimately undermined the gains of Reconstruction. The achievements of Reconstruction governments lasted only as long as federal support remained. ### Lincoln's Plan and the Wade-Davis Bill President Lincoln's **10% Plan**, designed to reconcile the nation, offered amnesty to Confederates who swore a loyalty oath and allowed state readmission upon 10% of 1860 voters taking the oath. However, this plan faced opposition from Radical Republicans, who feared a resurgence of Confederate influence and the loss of Republican power. The **Wade-Davis Bill**, a far stricter alternative, treated the South as conquered territory, requiring a majority of white male citizens to take a loyalty oath and barring former Confederate officials from office. President Lincoln pocket-vetoed this bill, preserving his own more lenient plan. ### Johnson's Presidency and the Black Codes President Lincoln's assassination brought Andrew Johnson to power. Johnson's modified 10% plan, while slightly stricter than Lincoln's, still alienated Republicans. His belief that the Southern states had never left the Union led to a clash with Congress. Following the readmission of Southern states, Southern legislatures enacted **Black Codes**, severely restricting the freedom of ex-slaves and aiming to maintain white supremacy and a reliable labor force. These codes, particularly the vagrancy provisions, sparked outrage in the North, leading to further conflict and ultimately shaping the course of Reconstruction.