# Study Notes: Airstream Mechanisms and Phonation Types ## 1. Airstream Mechanisms Airstream mechanisms refer to the ways air is manipulated to produce speech sounds. These mechanisms involve different sources of airflow and directions of movement. There are three principal types: ### 1.1 Pulmonic Airstream (Egressive) - **Source**: Lungs - **Direction**: Air is pushed out of the lungs. - **Name of Stops**: **Plosives** - Includes both **voiced** and **voiceless** sounds. - **Most common** airstream mechanism in human languages. Examples of pulmonic plosives: - Voiceless: /p/, /t/, /k/ - Voiced: /b/, /d/, /g/ --- ### 1.2 Glottalic Airstream Air is trapped between an oral closure and the glottis. This mechanism can be either **egressive** or **ingressive**. #### A. Egressive: **Ejectives** - **Steps**: 1. Close the glottis and create an oral closure. 2. Raise the glottis. 3. Increase oral pressure. 4. Release the oral closure. 5. Air is pushed **out**, creating an ejective sound. - **Characteristics**: - Always **voiceless**. - Transcription: Use an apostrophe (e.g., /p’/, /t’/, /k’/). - **Examples**: - Languages: Hausa (/p’, t’, k’, s’/), Navaho (/t’, k’, tɬ’, tʃ’/), Quechua (/tʃ’, k’, q’/). To identify ejectives, listen for a sharp, popping sound caused by the rapid release of compressed air. #### B. Ingressive: **Implosives** - **Steps**: 1. Create an oral closure while the vocal folds vibrate (for voiced implosives). 2. Lower the glottis. 3. Decrease oral pressure. 4. Release the oral closure. 5. Air is pulled **in**, creating an implosive sound. - **Characteristics**: - Can be **voiced** or **voiceless** (voiced is more common). - Transcription: Add a curved tail to the top-right of the symbol (e.g., /ɓ/, /ʄ/, /ɠ/, /ʛ/). - **Examples**: - Languages: Sindhi, Igbo (both voiced and voiceless), Hausa. Do not confuse ejectives (air out) with implosives (air in). The direction of airflow is key! --- ### 1.3 Velaric Airstream (Ingressive Only) Air is trapped between a velar closure and another oral closure in front of it. #### **Clicks** - **Steps**: 1. Create a velar closure and another closure in front of it. 2. Lower the center of the tongue. 3. Decrease oral pressure. 4. Release the front closure. 5. Air is pulled **in**, creating a click sound. - **Characteristics**: - Can combine with various phonation types (e.g., voiced, voiceless, nasal). - Transcription: Symbols include: - Bilabial: ʘ - Dental: ǀ - (Post)alveolar: ! - (Alveolar) lateral: ‖ - Palato-alveolar: ǂ - **Examples**: - Languages: Zulu (12 clicks), Xhosa (15 clicks), Nama (20 clicks). Zulu click examples: - Voiceless dental click: /ǀ/ - Voiced alveolar lateral click: /ɡ͡ǁ/ Clicks are rare and primarily found in southern African languages. --- ## 2. Phonation Types Phonation refers to how the vocal folds vibrate and the state of the glottis during sound production. The **larynx** plays a central role in phonation. ### Structure of the Larynx - **Key Components**: - **Cartilages**: Thyroid, arytenoid, cricoid. - **Vocal Folds**: Connected to the thyroid cartilage (front) and arytenoid cartilages (back). - **Glottis**: The space between the vocal folds. - Open glottis = no vibration. - Approximate glottis = vibration possible. --- ### 2.1 States of the Glottis Different configurations of the glottis and aerodynamic conditions result in various phonation types. #### A. Voiceless 1. **Open Glottis**: For pulmonic voiceless sounds (e.g., /p/, /t/, /k/). 2. **Closed Glottis**: For glottal stops and voiceless glottalic sounds (e.g., /ʔ/). #### B. Voiced 1. **Modal Voicing**: - Vocal folds are relaxed and approximate. - **Aerodynamic Condition**: Subglottal pressure ($P_s$) must be greater than oral pressure ($P_o$), i.e., $P_o < P_s$. - **Examples**: - Vowels: Modal voicing is typical. - Nasals: Modal voicing is common due to the open nasal cavity lowering $P_o$. - Stops: Voicing is harder to maintain because $P_o$ rises quickly. To maintain voicing during stops, speakers may expand the supraglottal cavity by lowering the larynx or jaw. 2. **Breathy Voicing**: - Vocal folds vibrate loosely while slightly apart. - Produces a "breathy" quality. - **Examples**: - Hindi: Breathy consonants. - Gujarati: Breathy vowels (e.g., [ɑ̤]). 3. **Creaky Voicing**: - Vocal folds vibrate irregularly with tension. - Small opening at the anterior end of the folds. - **Examples**: - Hausa: Laryngealized /j/. - Mazatec: Three-way contrast (modal, creaky, breathy). Do not confuse breathy voicing (loose vibration) with creaky voicing (irregular vibration and tension). --- ### 2.2 Voice Onset Time (VOT) **Definition**: The timing of voicing onset relative to the release of a closure. - **Types**: 1. **Negative VOT**: Voicing begins before the release (e.g., [b]). 2. **Zero VOT**: Voicing begins simultaneously with the release (e.g., [p]). 3. **Positive VOT**: Voicing begins after the release (e.g., [pʰ]). 4. **Murmured Stops**: Voicing during closure, with the glottis open after release (e.g., [bɦ]). English examples: - [b] (negative VOT) - [p] (zero VOT) - [pʰ] (positive VOT) VOT values marking phonemic boundaries differ across languages. For example, French /p/ has the same VOT as English /b/. --- ## 3. Phonological Consequences of Voicing 1. **Voiced Stops**: - If a language has voiced stops, it likely also has voiceless stops (but not vice versa). 2. **Geminate Stops**: - Long voiced stops are less common than long voiceless stops. - Example: Japanese has long voiceless stops but only short voiced stops. 3. **Place of Articulation**: - Long voiced stops are less likely at the back of the vocal tract (e.g., velar) than at the front (e.g., bilabial). 4. **Gaps in Stop Systems**: - Dorsal voiced stops are often missing. - Example: Thai stop system: /p, t, k, pʰ, tʰ, kʰ, b, d/. To analyze stop systems, look for patterns in voicing and place of articulation. --- ## Key Takeaways - **Airstream Mechanisms**: Pulmonic (most common), glottalic (ejectives, implosives), velaric (clicks). - **Phonation Types**: Voiceless, modal, breathy, creaky. - **VOT**: Crucial for distinguishing phonemes across languages. - **Voicing Constraints**: Influence phonological patterns and stop inventories. 1. What is the difference between ejectives and implosives? 2. Why is voicing harder to maintain in stops than in vowels? 3. How does VOT differ between [b], [p], and [pʰ]?