## Grade 11 Healthcare Final Exam Review: Comprehensive Notes ### Ethics in Healthcare The four basic principles of healthcare ethics are: 1. **Autonomy:** Patients have the right to make their own medical decisions, including the right to refuse treatment. During the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals could choose whether or not to receive the vaccine, reflecting their autonomy. Respecting patient autonomy is crucial for ethical healthcare. 2. **Justice:** All patients should be treated equitably and fairly, regardless of their background or condition. Healthcare professionals must provide equal care to vaccinated and unvaccinated individuals during a pandemic. Justice ensures equitable access to healthcare resources. 3. **Beneficence:** Healthcare providers should act in the best interests of their patients and strive to do good. Providing the best possible care to a patient, even if they made choices that negatively impacted their health. Beneficence means actively promoting patient well-being. 4. **Non-maleficence:** Healthcare providers should avoid causing harm to their patients. Not administering a vaccine to a patient with a known allergy, as this could cause harm. Failing to consider potential risks before administering treatment violates non-maleficence. ### Infection Control The chain of infection consists of six links: 1. **Infectious Agent:** The pathogen causing the disease (e.g., Influenza virus). 2. **Reservoir:** Where the pathogen lives and multiplies (e.g., infected individuals). 3. **Portal of Exit:** How the pathogen leaves the reservoir (e.g., respiratory droplets). 4. **Mode of Transmission:** How the pathogen spreads (e.g., airborne or direct contact). 5. **Portal of Entry:** How the pathogen enters a new host (e.g., respiratory tract). 6. **Susceptible Host:** An individual vulnerable to infection (e.g., those with compromised immune systems). **Donning and Doffing PPE:** * **Donning:** Gown → Mask/Respirator → Goggles/Face Shield → Gloves * **Doffing:** Gloves → Goggles/Face Shield → Gown → Mask/Respirator → Hand Hygiene **Isolation Precautions:** * **Contact Precautions:** Gloves and gown (e.g., MRSA, VRE). * **Droplet Precautions:** Mask and spatial separation (e.g., influenza, pertussis). * **Airborne Precautions:** N95 respirator, negative-pressure room (e.g., tuberculosis, measles, varicella). ### Homeostasis and Body Systems **Levels of Organization:** Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism **Anatomy vs. Physiology:** Anatomy studies body structure; physiology studies body function. **Homeostasis:** Maintaining a stable internal environment. This involves: Stimulus → Sensor → Control Center → Effector → Response. **Feedback Loops:** * **Negative Feedback:** Reverses a change, maintaining stability (e.g., blood glucose regulation). * **Positive Feedback:** Amplifies a change (e.g., labor). ### Nervous System **Reflex Arcs:** * **Patellar Reflex:** Stimulus (tap on patellar tendon) → Response (knee extension). * **Achilles Reflex:** Stimulus (tap on Achilles tendon) → Response (foot plantarflexion). * **Pupillary Reflex:** Stimulus (light) → Response (pupil constriction). **Cerebrum:** The largest part of the brain, responsible for higher-level functions. Its four lobes are: * **Frontal Lobe:** Voluntary movement, planning. * **Parietal Lobe:** Sensory processing (touch, temperature). * **Temporal Lobe:** Auditory processing, memory. * **Occipital Lobe:** Visual processing. ### Endocrine System **Blood Glucose Regulation:** * **After a Meal (Hyperglycemia):** Pancreas releases insulin; cells take up glucose. * **During Fasting (Hypoglycemia):** Pancreas releases glucagon; liver releases glucose. **Diabetes:** | Type 1 Diabetes | Type 2 Diabetes | |--------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------| | Autoimmune destruction of beta cells | Insulin resistance, beta cell dysfunction | | Usually diagnosed in childhood | Typically develops in adulthood | | Requires lifelong insulin therapy | Managed with lifestyle changes, medication, or insulin | **Insulin and Glucagon:** Beta cells secrete insulin; alpha cells secrete glucagon. ### Integumentary System (Thermoregulation) **Cooling:** Vasodilation, sweating. **Heating:** Vasoconstriction, shivering, piloerection. **Pressure Injuries:** * **Assessment:** Visual inspection for redness, swelling, etc. * **Prevention:** Frequent repositioning, pressure-relieving devices. * **Treatment:** Wound care, pressure relief. Exudate is the fluid that builds up in a pressure ulcer. Common areas include heels, sacrum, ischial tuberosities, elbows, hips, shoulder blades, and the back of the head. ### Circulatory and Respiratory Systems **Vital Signs:** * **Heart Rate:** Normal 60-100 bpm (adults). Bradycardia (<60 bpm), Tachycardia (>100 bpm), Arrhythmia (irregular rhythm). * **Respiratory Rate:** Normal 12-20 breaths/min (adults). Bradypnea (<12 breaths/min), Tachypnea (>20 breaths/min), Apnea (cessation of breathing), Dyspnea (difficulty breathing), Orthopnea (difficulty breathing lying down). * **Blood Pressure:** Normal 90-120/60-80 mmHg. Hypotension (<90/60 mmHg), Hypertension (>130/80 mmHg), Hypertensive Crisis (>180/120 mmHg). * **Temperature:** Normal 36.1-37.2°C (97-99°F). Hypothermia (<35°C/95°F), Fever/Pyrexia (>38°C/100.4°F), Hyperthermia (>40°C/104°F), Afebrile (normal temperature). **Breathing:** Inhalation (diaphragm contracts, chest cavity expands); Exhalation (diaphragm relaxes, chest cavity compresses). ### Musculoskeletal System **Ligament Tears:** * **Knee:** Hinge joint; quadriceps, hamstrings. Exercises: Squats, leg presses, hamstring curls. * **Shoulder:** Ball-and-socket joint; deltoid, rotator cuff muscles. Exercises: Pendulum swings, rotator cuff strengthening. * **Hip:** Ball-and-socket joint; hip flexors, gluteus maximus, adductors, abductors. Exercises: Lunges, glute bridges, side leg raises. **Range of Motion:** Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, pronation, supination, dorsiflexion, plantarflexion. **Quadriceps:** Rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius. **Bone Types:** Long (femur), short (carpals), flat (skull), irregular (vertebrae). **Ligament vs. Tendon:** Ligament (bone to bone); Tendon (muscle to bone). **Muscle Types:** Skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (involuntary), smooth (involuntary). **Planes of the Body:** Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal). ### Cancer Five things learned about cancer: 1. Abnormal cell growth invading surrounding tissues and spreading. 2. Can originate in any part of the body. 3. Carcinoma and sarcoma are two main types. 4. Cancerous cells spend most of their life in mitosis. 5. Differences between cancerous and normal cells include uncontrolled growth, avoidance of apoptosis, loss of function, lack of adhesion, and formation of new blood vessels. ### Medical Terminology Review *(This section requires the specific prefixes, suffixes, root words, circulatory, and respiratory terms covered in class to be added here.)*