## The Trans-Mississippi West (1865-1896): Farmers, Industry, and Native Americans This section explores the settlement and development of the Trans-Mississippi West between 1865 and 1896, focusing on the experiences of farmers, the rise of various industries, and the devastating impact on Native American populations. ### Government Promotion of Western Expansion The federal government actively encouraged westward expansion through policies like: * **The Homestead Act (1862):** Offered 160 acres of public land to settlers who lived on and improved the land for five years. This was a significant opportunity, but the land quality varied, and acquiring necessary supplies and equipment presented challenges. * **The Pacific Railroad Act (1862):** Authorized the construction of the Transcontinental Railroad, providing financial and land subsidies to railroad companies. The completion of the railroad in 1869 dramatically altered life in the West, opening up new markets and facilitating transportation. A common misconception is that the Homestead Act provided fertile, readily-available land to all settlers. The reality was far more complex. ### Western Economies: Boom and Bust Cycles The Western economy experienced dramatic boom and bust cycles, particularly in: * **Mining:** The California Gold Rush was the most famous, but other gold strikes (Pikes Peak, Comstock Lode) led to rapid population growth in mining towns. These towns were incredibly diverse, with significant numbers of immigrants from various countries. The Comstock Lode in Nevada led to Nevada's quick admission to the Union. Hydraulic mining, while profitable, caused significant environmental damage. * **Cattle Ranching:** Building on existing Spanish and Mexican traditions, the American cattle industry expanded rapidly, utilizing the vast open grasslands. The railroad opened new markets in the East. However, harsh winters, overgrazing, and the introduction of barbed wire fencing led to conflicts between ranchers and farmers, contributing to the boom and bust cycle. Remember to consider the environmental consequences of rapid economic expansion in the West. ### Myth vs. Reality of the West The romanticized image of the West, often portrayed in literature and dime novels, contrasts sharply with the harsh realities of life on the frontier. This romanticized view often ignored the struggles of settlers and the devastating impact on Native Americans. The West was a melting pot of diverse cultures, including significant Chinese immigration, which later faced nativism and the Chinese Exclusion Act. ### Native Americans and Western Expansion The expansion of the United States into the Trans-Mississippi West had a catastrophic impact on Native American populations, particularly the Plains Indians (e.g., Sioux, Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Comanche). * **Impact of European Contact:** The introduction of horses, firearms, alcohol, and diseases significantly altered Native American life even before the period of 1865-1896. * **Decline of the Bison:** The near-extermination of the bison, crucial to Plains Indian life, resulted from hunting for hides, railroad expansion, and deliberate efforts to undermine Native American resistance. * **Indian Wars:** The westward expansion led to numerous conflicts, including: * **Sand Creek Massacre (1864):** A massacre of over 100 Native Americans, mostly women and children. * **Battle of Little Bighorn (1876):** A victory for the Sioux, led by Sitting Bull, against General Custer. * **Chief Joseph's Surrender (1877):** The Nez Perce's attempt to flee to Canada ended in surrender. * **Battle of Wounded Knee (1890):** A massacre of over 200 Lakota Sioux, marking the end of major Native American resistance. This event is a crucial turning point in the history of Native Americans in the West. It's crucial to avoid romanticizing the "Indian Wars." These were brutal conflicts with devastating consequences for Native American populations. ### Assimilation Policies The U.S. government implemented assimilation policies aimed at eradicating Native American cultures, including: * **Boarding Schools:** Native American children were forced to attend boarding schools where they were forbidden to speak their native languages or practice their traditions. * **Dawes Act (1887):** This act aimed to break up tribal land ownership and assimilate Native Americans into private land ownership and American society. It was largely unsuccessful and resulted in the loss of significant Native American land. ### The Closing of the Frontier and its Aftermath * **Oklahoma Land Rush (1889):** The opening of Oklahoma Territory to settlement led to another displacement of Native Americans. * **Turner's Frontier Thesis (1893):** Frederick Jackson Turner argued that the closing of the frontier marked the end of a distinct era in American history, shaping American identity and character. However, this thesis has been criticized for overlooking the experiences of women, Native Americans, and other groups already living in the West. * **Shift to Overseas Expansion:** As the frontier closed, the U.S. increasingly focused on overseas expansion, marking a new phase in American foreign policy. ### Farmers' Movements and the Populist Party Farmers faced numerous challenges, including falling crop prices, unfair railroad practices, high costs of machinery, and tight money supply. This led to the formation of several organizations: * **The Grange:** Initially focused on social and educational activities, the Grange later advocated for government regulation of businesses. * **Farmers' Alliance:** Aimed to address farmers' economic concerns, but faced internal divisions and excluded African Americans. The Colored Farmers' Alliance was formed separately. * **Populist Party:** A third party formed from the Grange and Farmers' Alliance movements, advocating for government ownership of railroads, free silver, a graduated income tax, and political reforms. The Populist Party's platform reflected the growing frustration with laissez-faire capitalism and the unequal distribution of wealth. James Weaver was their presidential candidate in 1892. ### Labor Unrest and the Election of 1896 The late 19th century witnessed significant labor unrest, including: * **Homestead Strike (1892):** A violent strike at Carnegie Steel. * **Panic of 1893:** A major economic depression. * **Coxey's Army (1894):** A march of unemployed workers on Washington D.C. * **Pullman Strike (1894):** A strike led by Eugene Debs that was violently suppressed by the government. The election of 1896 saw William McKinley (Republican) defeat William Jennings Bryan (Democrat), who championed the Populist cause of free silver. The Populist Party's influence waned after this election.