## Ancient History: Geography, States, and Governance of the Ancient World ### 1. Geographical Framework of Ancient History #### 1.1 The Near East (Ancient East) * **Geographical Extent:** Between the eastern shores of the Mediterranean Sea (west), the eastern edge of the Iranian plateau (east), the Black and Caspian Seas (north), and the Red Sea and Indian Ocean (south). Includes ancient civilizations of Asia and northeastern Africa, encompassing ancient India and China. Think of it as a vast crescent-shaped area. * **Climate:** Primarily arid and sub-tropical. Winters are short and mild, summers are very hot with little rainfall. Large desert and semi-desert areas necessitate irrigation for agriculture. Northern and western regions have Mediterranean and continental climates, more favorable for agriculture due to higher rainfall. The Nile River valley in Egypt, despite being in a desert, supported a thriving civilization due to its fertile floodplains. #### 1.2 Key Regions of the Near East * **Anatolia (Asia Minor):** A large peninsula in modern-day Turkey. Home to ancient peoples like the Hurrians, Hittites, Phrygians, and Lydians. The Anatolian plateau is an inland region. Remember the location of Anatolia relative to the Mediterranean Sea and the Near East. * **Armenian Highlands (Armenia):** A mountainous region, mostly in modern-day Turkey. Homeland of the Urartians and ancient Armenians. * **Iranian Plateau (Iran):** Larger than the Anatolian and Armenian Highlands combined. Bordered by Mesopotamia to the west, the Indus River valley to the east, Central Asian steppes to the north, and the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean to the south. Home to the Persians, who established a vast empire in the 6th century BCE. The Iranian Plateau's size and location were crucial to the development of Persian power. * **Mesopotamia:** Between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Fertile land, but prone to flooding. Barley was a staple crop. A central location in the Near East, home to Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Amorites, and Chaldeans. Babylon was a major city. Don't confuse the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. * **Syria:** West of Mesopotamia. * **Palestine:** A triangular region between the Mediterranean Sea, the Syrian Desert, and the Sinai Peninsula. * **Sinai Peninsula:** A desert peninsula connecting western Asia and Egypt. * **Arabian Peninsula:** Modern-day Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, etc. Mostly arid deserts. The Fertile Crescent was a rich and densely populated area. The Fertile Crescent is a key area for understanding the development of early civilizations. #### 1.3 Ancient Egypt * **Location:** Northeast Africa, along the Nile River. Geographically isolated except for the Nile valley. * **Geography:** Mostly desert, except for the Nile valley and small oases. The Nile River is over 6000 km long. The Sinai Peninsula was a source of copper. Divided into Upper and Lower Egypt. The Nile River was essential for Egyptian civilization. #### 1.4 The Mediterranean * **Geographical Extent:** Encompassed lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea and its numerous islands. Connected Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Romans controlled the entire Mediterranean. Characterized by mild, rainy winters and relatively dry, hot summers. Favorable for agriculture. Three major peninsulas: Balkan, Apennine, and Iberian. The Mediterranean Sea facilitated trade and cultural exchange between different civilizations. #### 1.5 Ancient Greece * **Location:** Southern Balkan Peninsula. Connected to the Near East through islands in the Aegean Sea. Contact with Black Sea regions to the northeast, Egypt to the south, and Italy and the rest of the Mediterranean to the west. Mediterranean climate. Mountainous terrain divided into smaller geographical regions. Major regions: Macedonia, Thessaly, Attica (with Athens), Peloponnese. The mountainous terrain of Greece influenced the development of independent city-states (poleis). #### 1.6 Italy * **Location:** Apennine Peninsula. Central location in the Mediterranean. Bordered by the Adriatic Sea to the east, the Ionian Sea to the south, and the Tyrrhenian Sea to the west. Divided into various regions like Etruria (Tuscany), Umbria, Latium, Campania, etc. ### 2. States and Forms of Government in the Ancient Near East * **State:** A political organization with a monopoly on power and force over a community, aiming to protect it and maintain order. Emerged around the same time as writing (late 4th millennium BCE). The state's emergence marked a significant shift in social organization. * **Earliest States:** Sumer and Egypt. * **Urbanization:** The development of cities paralleled the rise of states. * **Chiefdoms:** A transitional form between tribal and state organizations, encompassing multiple villages or nomadic groups under loose control of a chief. * **Absolute Monarchies:** The dominant form of government in the developed states of the Near East. The ruler had absolute power. #### 2.1 Mesopotamian States * **Early States:** Small city-states, initially bureaucratized monarchies with administrators, supervisors, scribes, and officials. Titles like *lugal* (king) and *ensi* (subordinate king or appointed heir). Kings were religious leaders, lawmakers, major landowners, judges, and military commanders. Mesopotamian city-states often fought for dominance. * **Larger Empires:** Akkadian Empire (24th century BCE), Old Babylonian Empire (23rd century BCE). #### 2.2 Ancient Egyptian State * **Ruler:** Pharaoh (title used from the 2nd millennium BCE). Practiced incestuous marriages. Ruled through dynasties. Centralized monarchy with absolute control. The country was divided into nomes (administrative districts). The Pharaoh was considered both a divine and earthly ruler. #### 2.3 Other Near Eastern States * **Elam:** Established around 2700 BCE in southwestern Iran. Later replaced by Median and then Persian rule. * **Median Kingdom:** An ancient Iranian kingdom in western Iran (8th century BCE). * **Persian Empire:** The largest state in the Near East (6th-4th centuries BCE). * **East Asian Dynasties:** Shang/Jin, Zhou, Han, Qin, etc. The Zhou dynasty unified much of China by 221 BCE, leading to the First Chinese Empire. ### 3. Ancient Near Eastern Legal Tradition * **Mesopotamian Legal Tradition:** Cuneiform legal texts. * **Code of Hammurabi:** One of the earliest known law codes (18th century BCE), inscribed on a stele. * **Egyptian Legal Tradition:** Based on the concept of *maat* (truth), opposed to *isfet* (chaos). This concludes the study notes. Remember to review the key terms and concepts, and consider creating your own practice questions to test your understanding.