## Presidential Power Expansion: From Kennedy to Obama This document analyzes the expansion of presidential power, particularly in foreign policy, from the Kennedy administration to the Obama administration. It examines how different presidents navigated the balance between executive authority and public/Congressional support, highlighting both successes and failures. ### John F. Kennedy: The Inaugural Promise and its Realities Kennedy's inaugural address set a tone of global engagement and a willingness to "pay any price" for liberty, foreshadowing an expansion of presidential power in foreign affairs. Kennedy's presidency marked a significant shift. While presidential influence in foreign policy had been growing since Theodore Roosevelt, Kennedy's actions solidified the president's role as the primary architect of US foreign policy. This was partly due to the US's emergence as a global superpower with extensive international obligations. * **The Bay of Pigs Invasion:** This disastrous event, though initially threatening Kennedy's popularity, ultimately demonstrated the public's willingness to rally behind a president who took responsibility for his actions. A common misconception is that the Bay of Pigs failure significantly weakened Kennedy's presidency. In reality, his acceptance of responsibility strengthened his public image. * **The Cuban Missile Crisis:** This crisis showcased Kennedy's willingness to manage a critical international situation exclusively with his inner circle (ExComm), bypassing Congress. The successful resolution further enhanced the perception of executive authority in foreign policy. Kennedy's use of a naval "quarantine" instead of a blockade, and his televised address to the nation, were strategic moves to garner public support and avoid appearing aggressive. * **Vietnam:** Kennedy's cautious approach to Vietnam, evidenced by his plans to withdraw advisors, suggests a desire to maintain control of foreign policy without engaging in a large-scale land war. However, his assassination left this question unanswered. **Key Takeaway:** Kennedy's presidency demonstrated the growing power of the executive branch in foreign policy, particularly in times of crisis. His ability to manage public perception and maintain support, even after failures, was crucial to this expansion. ### Lyndon B. Johnson: The Vietnam War and its Consequences Johnson's presidency highlights the potential pitfalls of unilateral executive action without sufficient public and Congressional support. Johnson inherited the Vietnam issue and escalated US involvement significantly. Unlike Kennedy, Johnson lacked a broad national consensus for his actions. * **The Tonkin Gulf Resolution:** While seeking Congressional backing, Johnson ultimately acted unilaterally in escalating the war, leading to a credibility gap and widespread anti-war sentiment. Many believe the Tonkin Gulf Resolution gave Johnson explicit authorization for a large-scale war. It was more of a general authorization that was later interpreted broadly by the executive branch. * **Lack of Public Consultation:** Johnson's incremental troop deployments and avoidance of televised addresses to explain his actions eroded public trust and contributed to the anti-war movement. **Key Takeaway:** Johnson's experience demonstrated the limitations of executive power when it lacks public and Congressional support. The Vietnam War significantly damaged his presidency and fueled a backlash against unchecked presidential authority. ### Nixon, Ford, and Carter: Secrecy and Shifting Public Opinion The presidencies of Nixon, Ford, and Carter illustrate the ongoing tension between executive power and accountability. Nixon, despite his "imperial presidency" ambitions, faced challenges to his authority. * **Secret Actions:** Nixon's secret dealings with China and the Soviet Union, as well as his secret bombing of Cambodia, highlighted his preference for unilateral action and secrecy. These actions, however, ultimately contributed to public distrust. * **Watergate:** The Watergate scandal severely damaged the presidency's credibility and led to increased judicial oversight of executive power. The Supreme Court's ruling on the release of White House tapes was a significant check on presidential authority. Ford and Carter continued to exercise significant executive power in foreign policy, but faced setbacks due to secret military operations (Mayaguez incident, Iran hostage rescue attempt) that failed to garner public support. **Key Takeaway:** The Nixon era, followed by Ford and Carter, showed that even with significant executive power, secrecy and lack of public support could lead to significant political damage. ### Reagan, Bush, Clinton, and Bush Jr.: A Continuing Struggle for Balance The presidencies from Reagan to Bush Jr. demonstrate the ongoing negotiation between executive power and Congressional/public opinion. These presidents continued to navigate the complex relationship between executive authority and public/Congressional support. * **Reagan and the Iran-Contra Affair:** This scandal demonstrated the dangers of covert operations and the importance of Congressional oversight. * **Bush Sr. and the Gulf War:** Bush Sr. secured Congressional support for the Gulf War, illustrating the potential benefits of collaboration. * **Clinton and Intervention in the Balkans:** Clinton's approach varied, with consultation on some actions and unilateral action on others. * **Bush Jr. and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq:** While initially securing Congressional support, the prolonged wars in Afghanistan and Iraq led to a decline in public approval and renewed debate about the limits of executive power in war-making. **Key Takeaway:** These presidencies highlight the ongoing tension between executive power and accountability. While presidents often acted unilaterally, the consequences of such actions varied depending on public and Congressional support. ### Barack Obama: A Return to Cautious Engagement? Obama's presidency presented a mixed picture. * **Afghanistan:** The expansion of the war in Afghanistan, despite withdrawal timelines, raised concerns about an "imperial presidency." * **Iraq:** The commitment to ending the war in Iraq offered a contrast to the previous administrations' prolonged military engagements. **Key Takeaway:** Obama's presidency suggests a continued struggle to balance executive power with public and Congressional accountability. His actions highlight the ongoing debate about the appropriate limits of presidential authority in foreign policy. ### Conclusion: The Enduring Tension The history of presidential power from Kennedy to Obama reveals a persistent tension between the executive branch's desire for decisive action and the need for public and Congressional support. While presidents have consistently expanded their power, particularly in foreign policy, the consequences of unilateral action without sufficient backing have often been significant. The ultimate control of the presidency, as Arthur Schlesinger Jr. argued, lies not in law but in politics – the withdrawal of consent by Congress, the press, and public opinion.